Sunday, November 22, 2009

A Farewell to Arms

A Farewell to Arms is a semi-autobiographical novel written by Ernest Hemingway, first published in 1929. The novel is told through the point of view of Lieutenant Frederic Henry, an American serving as an ambulance driver in the Italian army during World War I. The title is taken from a poem by 16th century English dramatist George Peele.[1]

The novel is said to have been written at the home of Hemingway's in-laws in Piggott, Arkansas[2] and at the home of friends of Hemingway's wife Pauline Pfeiffer W. Malcolm and Ruth Lowry home at 6435 Indian Lane, Mission Hills, Kansas while she was awaiting delivery of their baby.[3]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Plot summary

The novel is divided into five books. In the first book, Henry meets and attempts to seduce Catherine Barkley and their relationship begins. While on the Italian front, Henry is wounded in the knee by a mortar shell and sent to a hospital in Milan. The second book shows the growth of Henry and Catherine's relationship as they spend time together in Milan over the summer. Henry falls in love with Catherine and by the time he is healed, Catherine is three months pregnant. In the third book, Henry returns to his unit, but not long after, the Austro-Germans break through the Italian lines and the Italians retreat. Henry kills an engineering sergeant for insubordination. After falling behind and catching up again, Henry is taken to a place by the "battle police" where officers are being interrogated and executed for the "treachery" that supposedly led to the Italian defeat. However, after hearing the execution of a Lt.Colonel, Henry escapes by jumping into a river. In the fourth book, Catherine and Henry reunite and flee to Switzerland in a rowing boat. In the final book, Henry and Catherine live a quiet life in the mountains until she goes into labour. After a long and painful labour, their son is stillborn. Catherine begins to haemorrhage and soon dies, leaving Henry to return to their hotel in the rain.

[edit] Background

The novel is autobiographical and the real-life Kitty Cannell inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is obscure, he had already appeared in In Our Time. A Farewell to Arms was published at a time when many other World War I books were prominent, including Frederic Manning's Her Privates We, Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, Richard Aldington's Death of a Hero, and Robert Graves' Goodbye to All That. The success of A Farewell to Arms made Hemingway financially independent.

Saturday, October 3, 2009

चाराच्तेर्स इन डॉक्टर FAUSTUS

Wagner: Faustus' servant and eventual heir of his fortunes, Wagner is a pale reflection of Faustus; he displays a nature similar to his master, even trying to obtain his own servant through the practice of magic. Wagner's background is not known, but it is clear from his language and demeanor that he is a young servant who looks up to Faustus. Wagner tries to imitate Faustus in many ways, in the way he talks and even in his taking up of magic. Wagner is Faustus' image-bearing progeny. That he inherits Faustus' fortunes suggests he might even be of physical progeny. At several points, Wagner acts as a narrator, filling in gaps in the story.

Good Angel: An agent of God who appears in pair with the Evil Angel, the Good Angel tries to make Faustus think about God and of heavenly things. The Good Angel represents the good side in the good/evil dichotomy. In a literary sense, the Good Angel reflects the good side of Faustus' conscience, for Marlowe tries to show that Faustus, like every human being, has two natures, both good and bad. What the Good Angel says mirrors what Faustus' good nature is thinking. Thus, the interchanges between the Good Angel and the Evil Angel reveal Faustus' inner struggles with himself. The Good Angel's main message to Faustus is that it is never too late to turn to God.

Evil Angel: An agent of Lucifer who appears in pair with the Good Angel, the Evil Angel tries to keep Faustus focused on power, wealth, and worldly pleasures. In direct contrast to the Good Angel, the Evil Angel represents the evil side in the good/evil dichotomy. In a literary sense, the Evil Angel reflects the evil side of Faustus' conscience, for Marlowe tries to show that Faustus, like every human being, has two natures, both good and bad. What the Evil Angel says mirrors what Faustus' evil nature is thinking. Thus, the interchanges between the Good Angel and the Evil Angel reveal Faustus' inner struggles with himself. The Evil Angel main message to Faustus is that God will not accept his repentance.

Mephistophilis: The devil that appears before Faustus, Mephistophilis makes the deal where he is to serve Faustus for twenty-four years in exchange for Faustus' soul. Mephistophilis is the main antagonist in the story, but he is also a conflicted character in his own right. As part of the rebellion of heaven, Mephistophilis was cast out with the other angels and sent to hell. When Faustus inquires about hell, Mephistophilis admits that he regrets forgoing the joys of heaven for the torment of hell. Mephistophilis tries to talk Faustus out of making a pact with Lucifer. But when Faustus makes the deal, Mephistophilis dutifully fulfills Faustus' wishes, whims, and desires for the next twenty-four years. Although Mephistophilis warns Faustus about the torments of hell, once the deal is made, Mephistophilis uses his power and cunning to prevent Faustus from repenting.

Lucifer: The Prince of the devils, Lucifer was once an angel of God who was cast out of heaven with other rebel angels because of their pride and insolence. Lucifer authorizes the deal between Faustus and Mephistophilis. If Mephistophilis is a conflicted devil, Lucifer shows no such weaknesses or signs of remorse for having been cast out of heaven. When Faustus cries upon the name of Christ, Lucifer comes, as though Mephistophilis is not crafty enough in such urgent cases. Lucifer masterly prevents Faustus from turning back to God at key points in the story.

Minor Characters

Chorus: A stage and literary device associated with Greek tragedy, the Chorus narrates and fills in parts of the story.

Valdes and Cornelius: Friends of Faustus, they are reputed to be practitioners of magic. Faustus calls on them to teach him the black arts. Valdes and Cornelius tell Faustus that with his wit, he will be powerful, and together they will be famous all over the world.

Two scholars: Faustus' fellow colleagues at the university, they are concerned that he has not been around. They ask Wagner about Faustus' whereabouts. When they find out Faustus has been with Valdes and Cornelius, they decide to tell the Rector of the university.

Belzebub: A companion prince of Lucifer, Faustus refers to Belzebub when he denounces God.

Clown: A poor, beggar-like character, the Clown is threatened by Wagner to be his servant. When the clown refuses, Wagner conjures up some spirits to scare him. The Clown follows Wagner, but asks Wagner to teach him magic.

Baliol and Belcher: Two spirits that Wagner conjures up to scare the Clown into serving him, Baliol and Belcher is a he-devil and a she-devil respectively.

Seven Deadly Sins: At the behest of Lucifer, Pride, Covetousness, Wrath, Envy, Gluttony, Sloth, and Lechery appear before Faustus. Faustus is delighted by their presence.

Pope: Faustus intrudes upon the Pope's privy-chamber and creates havoc, even hitting the Pope on the head.

Cardinal of Lorrain: The Pope's guest when Faustus enters the privy-chamber, the Cardinal thinks the invisible Faustus is a ghost from purgatory.

Emperor Carolus the Fifth: Faustus visits the German Emperor, Carolus the Fifth, who makes a request to see Alexander the Great and his paramour in person.

Robin the Ostler: An employee of an inn, Robin steals one of Faustus' magic books and makes Mephistophilis appear. He is turned into an ape by Mephistophilis.

Ralph: A fellow employee with Robin at the inn, Robin is turned into a dog by Mephistophilis.

Vintner: The Vintner, a wine merchant, comes to collect from Robin a silver goblet that is owed him. Robin tries to elude the Vintner by conjuring up a spirit, but it backfires.

Knight: The Knight, who serves in the court of Emperor Carolus the Fifth, is skeptical about Faustus' magical powers. In spite, Faustus makes horns grow on his head.

Alexander the Great: Alexander the Great, the famous Macedonian conqueror, and his Paramour are the two figures of the past that the Emperor Carolus the Fifth wants Faustus to produce.

Paramour: Emperor Carolus the Fifth is curious to know if Alexander the Great's lover, the Paramour, has a mole or a wart on her neck.

Horse-Courser: The Horse-Courser purchases a horse from Faustus. He is warned by Faustus not to ride the horse through water, but does not listen. When the Horse-Courser rides into water, the horse turns into a bottle of hay. The Horse-Courser tries to get Faustus' attention by pulling on his leg while he is sleeping. But Faustus plays a joke on him by making his leg fall off, scaring the Horse-Courser away.

Duke of Vanholt: Faustus visits the court of the Duke of Vanholt. The Duke is impressed with Faustus' magical powers.

Duchess of Vanholt: The Duchess of Vanholt, who is pregnant, desires ripe grapes in the dead of winter. Faustus is able to get her the best grapes she has ever had. The Duke and Duchess agree to reward Faustus handsomely.

Helen of Troy: The figure over which the Trojan War was fought, Helen of Troy is deemed to be the most admirable beauty in history. Faustus makes her appear before his colleagues. Faustus' last request to Mephistophilis is to have Helen of Troy as his lover.

Old Man: The Old Man appears to Faustus in order to convince him to repent and turn to God. A contrast to Faustus, the Old Man keeps his faith even through persecution from devils

Thursday, September 24, 2009

The Last Duty

The Last Duty

by Isidore Okpewho

Isidore Okpewho was born November 9, 1941, at Agbor in the Midwest region of Nigeria, now Delta State and Edo State. Delta is predominantly Igbo (Ibo) speaking, while Edo is predominantly Urhobo speaking. Okpewho, who has an Igbo-speaking mother and an Urhobospeaking father, graduated from University College in Ibadan in 1964, then worked for the Federal Ministry of Education, the Ministry of External Affairs, and Longman publishers. He spent eight years at Longman as an editor at its Nigeria office. During this time, before emigrating to pursue a doctorate in English in the United States, Okpewho published his first novel, The Victims (1970), and completed the first draft of his second novel, The Last Duty. He began the latter novel toward the end of 1969 (when the Nigerian civil war was drawing to a close), completing it the following year. The Last Duty has gained renown as one of the finest fictional accounts of the psychological damage done to ordinary citizens by the three-year Nigerian civil war.

Events in History at the Time of the Novel

Colonial legacies. The Last Duty is set at a time when the Nigerian nation was at the brink of disintegration

Monday, September 21, 2009

George Eliot

George Eliot was the pen name of Mary Anne Evans, who was born in Warwickshire, England in 1819. She spent her early life in the country, nursing a sick father, and beginning to develop the ideas that she would later explore in her writing. After the death of Mr. Evans, she travelled through Europe and eventually moved to London, where she became the editor of the “Westminster Review”. There she met George Henry Lewes, a married man at the time, who would be her companion until his death in 1878.

In 1856, she decided to try her hand at writing fiction, something she had always wanted to do. With encouragement from Lewes, she wrote what later became SCENES OF CLERICAL LIFE. It was published in 1857, under the name of George Eliot. ADAM BEDE, the following year, became a huge sensation in the literary world. When the author’s identity was discovered, her publisher was afraid to print her next work because of the controversy surrounding the Lewes’ marriage. However, his fears proved unfounded, and George Eliot continued writing.

She produced several other books, of which the most famous is MIDDLEMARCH, a tale of life in a fictional English midlands town before the Reform Bill of 1832. Lewes passed away in 1878, and after mourning him for two years Evans accepted the proposal of John Cross, a man twenty years her junior. In 1880, after only seven months of marriage, George Eliot died of a sudden illness. She left behind her a legacy as a humane freethinker, and the author of novels that paved the way for modern character portrayals.

चाराच्तेर्स इन थे लोर्ड ऑफ़ थे FLIES

Allegorical relationships

The relationships displayed in the novel have not yet been fully examined. However, there are a few clues that can be drawn from the novel.

Ralph
When he and the others arrive on the island, he quickly establishes himself as the chief of the group, although not by any harsh, overt or physical action, but by being elected. Ralph has many leadership skills that Piggy does not and he knows when to and when not to talk (which separates him from Piggy again). Ralph suggests that a fire be lit, hoping that it will increase their chance of being saved; he is also the one who thinks up the idea of the huts on the beach and the meeting place. Ralph also progresses with order and rationality when the dead paratrooper is found on the mountain and causes the younger boys to panic. In addition to all this, it should be noted that Ralph has a tendency to be polite and logical in the tensest of moments; for example, when the children are obliged to investigate Castle Rock, Ralph takes the lead despite being horribly afraid of the “beast”. When Simon expresses his doubts about the existence of such a creature, Ralph responds “politely, as if agreeing about the weather.” Ralph embodies logic, order and civilisation.[6]
Piggy
Piggy, whose real name is never revealed, is Ralph’s chief adviser and “true, wise friend.” He represents the role of intelligence, reason and civilization. His identity with civilization is symbolized in many ways, including the fact that his hair never lengthens even as the others’ does, and his refusal to accept the existence of ghosts or the beast. Even at the beginning, the limited influence of civilization is symbolized by the limitations of Piggy’s own body: his obesity, his often debilitating asthma, and his thick spectacles. His deteriorating sway is further represented as his glasses are first broken, then later stolen by Jack, leaving him all but completely helpless. He makes a final appeal for order and reason, and is horribly killed for his efforts. With his gruesome death, simultaneous with the destruction of the conch, reason and civility are gone completely, and the descent into savagery is consummate.[4]
The Conch
When first blown, it convokes the children to an assembly, where Ralph is elected leader. They also agree that only the boy holding the conch may speak at meetings to forestall arguments and chaos, and that it should be passed around to those who wish to voice their opinion. The conch symbolises democracy and, like Ralph, civility and order within the group. It is, however, eventually smashed into thousands of pieces by the same rock which has killed Piggy. Therefore, the conch’s destruction can be perceived as the death of order on the island.[4]
Jack
Jack epitomizes the worst aspects of human nature when not controlled or tempered by society. Like Ralph, Jack is a natural leader. However, unlike Ralph, Jack appeals to more basic desires in the children and relies on his status as leader of the choirboys (presumably ordained by the adults). Although his way of behaving is neither disruptive nor violent at the beginning of the book, he does at that time express an ungovernable desire to hunt and kill a pig. As the story progresses, this desire grows more and more irrational, to the point where he abandons the fire (and causes the boys to miss a potential rescue) simply in order to hunt. This sparks tension between Jack and Ralph which leads to a clear dividing line between the two appearing, on one hand Jack is the irrational one, whereas, on the other Ralph represents rational. Eventually, in the later part of the book when Ralph’s leadership is more undermined, Jack’s true evil nature is exposed. He leads most of the boys away from Ralph, and forms a separate group, based not on democracy but obedience and where violence and torture are carried out. The tale ends with Jack leading many of the boys in a frenzied attempt to kill Ralph, which is only prevented by the abrupt and unexpected arrival of a naval officer.[6]
Simon
Simon is a character who represents peace and tranquillity, with some references to Jesus Christ. He is very in-tune with the island, and often experiences extraordinary sensations when listening to its sounds. He also has an extreme aversion to the pig’s head, the “Lord of the Flies”, which derides and taunts Simon in a hallucination. After this experience, Simon emerges from the forest only to be brutally killed by Jack’s people, who mistake him for the beast. The final words that the Lord of the Flies had said to Simon vaguely predicted that his death was about to occur in this manner.[6]
Naval Officer
Arriving moments before Ralph's seemingly impending death, the Naval Officer acts as a form of deus ex machina. The Officer is surprised and disappointed to learn that the boy's society has collapsed into chaos, stating that he would have expected "a better show" from the British children.
The arrival of the officer triggers an interesting phenomenon; Ralph's, and to a larger extent, Jack's authority is completely dissolved by the officer's arrival. Upon the officer asking who is "in charge", the struggle of the book is rendered instantly obsolete: "Who's boss here?" "I am." said Ralph loudly". Jack, who was previously characterized as a powerful leader is reduced to: "A little boy who wore the remains of an extraordinary black cap on his red hair and who carried the remains of a pair of spectacles at his waist", somewhat abruptly demonstrating the illusion of authority and control.
The Lord of the Flies
Namesake of the novel, the Lord of the Flies is literally a pig's head that has been cut off by Jack, put on a stick sharpened at both ends, stuck in the ground, and offered to the "beast". Created out of fear, the Lord of the Flies used to be a mother sow who, though at one time clean, loving, and innocent, has now become a manically smiling, bleeding image of evil. This transformation clearly represents the transformation that Jack and the boys have undergone during their time in the island. In addition, the name 'Lord of the Flies' is the literal English translation of Beelzebub, a demonic figure that is often considered Satan's right hand man.
The Lord of the Flies is a physical manifestation of the evil that is in the boys, and the evil that Golding believed existed in all of us

Saturday, September 19, 2009

THEMES IN GOLDING'S LORD OF THE FLIES.

Theme Analysis


The theme of Lord of the Flies has been questioned and speculated about for decades. To answer the critics, Golding said that the theme was to trace the problems of society back to the sinful nature of man. He wrote the book to show how political systems cannot govern society effectively without first taking into consideration the defects of human nature.

The defects of human nature are exemplified in Golding’s novel through the characters of Jack and his hunters. Here, Golding shows that men are inherently evil; if left alone to fend for themselves, they will revert back to the savage roots of their ancestors. This is seen in the novel near the end, when the tribe is hunting Ralph. Matters had become quite out of hand by this time. Even the naval officer who saves the boys knows their society has become savage.

Yet Golding’s last comment in his press release criticizes not only the boys on the island but also the society of adults in which the officer lives. Golding asks— while the ship saves the boys from killing each other, who will save the ship from killing other ships or being killed? In this way the society of the outside world mirrors the island society on a larger level. Remember that the novel takes place during World War II. Golding got the idea for the book because of his experiences in the war, where he served in the Navy and learned the inherent sinfulness of man. It’s interesting that the war is mentioned indirectly at the beginning and end of the novel but nowhere in between. This is a remarkable literary device of Golding.

After reading any significant portion of this site, it will become obvious that Piggy and Jack symbolize two opposite extremes of human behavior while Ralph is pulled between these philosophies. Piggy demands adherence to the rules of his auntie while Jack subscribes to the philosophy, "If it’s fun, do it." Ralph empathizes with parts of both sides; that is why he walks the tight rope. Eventually he seems to side with Piggy, but actually Ralph never changes his philosophy— it is Jack and the rest of the boys who become more extreme in theirs (hunting humans, forming their own tribe, etc.). In this way Ralph portrays the role of government in any modern society. While he wants to satisfy the wishes of the public, he must also realize that certain rules of behavior must be followed in order to prevent anarchy.

Unfortunately anarchy defeats order. This is the outcome because Golding believed that government is an ineffective way to keep people together. No matter how logical or reasonable, government will eventually have to give in to the anarchical demands of the public.

Wednesday, September 16, 2009

PURPLE HIBISCUS BY CHIMAMANDA ADICHIE.

THE PLOT: Purple Hibiscus is the story of a family torn asunder by religion. Not the ordinary religion, but absolute FANATICISM. The wealthy father, Bro Eugene, forbade his two children Jaja and Kambali from visiting their grandfather. He claimed that his father was a heathen.
Not only did he disown his father, he became violent, beating both his children and his wife. We see this in page 144:

"When he(Jaja) was ten, he had missed two questions on his catechism test
and was not named the best in his first holy communion class. Papa took
him upstairs and locked the door. Jaja, in tears came out supporting his
left hand with his right and papa drove him to St. Agnes hospital".

Tuesday, September 15, 2009

THEMES IN DIZZY ANGEL BY GRACE OSIFO

1) SUPERSTITION: This is one of the prominent themes in the novel. The villagers believe so much in witches and wizards. The story begins with a witch hunt which climaxed with the identification of four women accused of killing one of the villagers. There is also the belief in the power of men who are alleged to possess supernatural powers. All these, are the product of our society. A society built on rituals and ritual performances.
2) REINCARNATION:This the rebirth of a soul in another body after death. There is a belief that dearth is not final. Hence, the belief that certain children possess evil powers that enable them to be born several times. The Igbos call them Ogbanje, Yoruba call them Abiku, Hausa call them Wabi.

Monday, September 14, 2009

DIZZY ANGEL BY GRACE OSIFO.

THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE NOVEL:One of the most important subject-matter of this novel,is the fact that with God all things are possible. There is also an emphatic statement that fortune and destiny can be changed. It takes our will, desires and determination to turn around our fortunes.
A critical look at the story, reveals the fact that our heroine in the story-Ogbanje was, can we say doomed from birth. Destined to come and go, bringing pain and sorrow to her parent. The only way she can change her destiny and avoid untimely death, was to marry a man old enough to be her father. But, she changed her destiny. She ran away from home, defied the power of darkness and became a living testimony of the saving power of God.

Sunday, September 13, 2009

AFRICAN LITERATURE.

African literature

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

African literature refers to literature of and from Africa. As George Joseph notes on the first page of his chapter on African literature in Understanding Contemporary Africa, while the European perception of literature generally refers to written letters, the African concept includes oral literature.[1]

As George Joseph continues, while European views of literature often stressed a separation of art and content, African awareness is inclusive:

"Literature" can also imply an artistic use of words for the sake of art alone. Without denying the important role of aesthetics in Africa, we should keep in mind that, traditionally, Africans do not radically separate art from teaching. Rather than write or sing for beauty in itself, African writers, taking their cue from oral literature, use beauty to help communicate important truths and information to society. Indeed, an object is considered beautiful because of the truths it reveals and the communities it helps to build. [2]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Early written literatures

(Ancient Egypt) was among the earliest African civilizations with a literary tradition, some of whose hieroglyphic writings survive to this day. Works such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead are commonly used by scholars as a primary reference for ancient Egyptian religious belief and ceremony. Nubian literature, while acknowledged is currently undecipherable. Written initially in hieroglyphs and eventually in a 23 character alphabetic script, translation has proven difficult.

[edit] Oral literature

Oral literature (or orature) may be in prose or verse. The prose is often mythological or historical and can include tales of the trickster character. Storytellers in Africa sometimes use call-and-response techniques to tell their stories. Poetry, often sung, includes: narrative epic, occupational verse, ritual verse, praise poems to rulers and other prominent people. Praise singers, bards sometimes known as "griots", tell their stories with music. [3] Also recited, often sung, are: love songs, work songs, children's songs, along with epigrams, proverbs and riddles.[4]

[edit] Precolonial literature

Examples of pre-colonial African literature are numerous. Oral literature of west Africa includes the Epic of Sundiata composed in medieval Mali, The older Epic of Dinga from the old Ghana Empire. In Ethiopia, originally written in Ge'ez script is the Kebra Negast or book of kings. One popular form of traditional African folktale is the "trickster" story, where a small animal uses its wits to survive encounters with larger creatures. Examples of animal tricksters include Anansi, a spider in the folklore of the Ashanti people of Ghana; Ijàpá, a tortoise in Yoruba folklore of Nigeria; and Sungura, a hare found in central and East African folklore. [5] Other works in written form are abundant, namely in north Africa, the Sahel regions of west Africa and on the Swahili coast. From Timbuktu alone, there are an estimated 300,000 or more manuscripts tucked away in various libraries and private collections[6], mostly written in Arabic, but some in the native languages (namely Peul and Songhai)[7]. Many were written at the famous University of Timbuktu. The material covers a wide array of topics, including Astronomy, Poetry, Law, History, Faith, Politics, and Philosophy among others.[8] Swahili literature similarly, draws inspiration from Islamic teachings but developed under indigenous circumstances. One of the most renowned and earliest pieces of Swahili literature being Utendi wa Tambuka or "The Story of Tambuka". In Islamic times, North Africans such as ibn Khaldun attained great distinction within Arabic literature. Medieval north Africa boasted Universities such as those of Fez and Cairo, with copious amounts of literature to supplement them.

[edit] Colonial African literature

The African works best known in the West from the period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).

In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely-Hayford (also known as Ekra-Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation [9] Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.

During this period, African plays began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play , The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngugi wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).

African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans in 1948, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre. [10]

Nor was the African literary clerisy of this time relatively divorced from the issues that it tackled. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off-hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa died by the gallows of the Nigerian junta.

[edit] Postcolonial African literature

With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of" lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.

Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self-reliance and between Africanity and humanity. [11] Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.

In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Algerian-born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.